This blog is part of the series “David against Goliath: Lessons of Resistance from Eastern Europe and Central Asia” by the Perspektive Ost program at Polis180.
Beyond the large-scale military operations, Ukraine’s clandestine resistance networks in occupied territories from Crimea to Kherson and Luhansk perform vital roles in civil resistance, intelligence, sabotage, and symbolic defiance. While Ukraine’s armed forces are at the forefront of defending the nation, underground resistance movements in occupied territories, including both civilian and partisan actors, have become an essential pillar of Ukraine’s fight for sovereignty. Rooted in a long history of resistance against foreign domination, these covert operations continue to shape the course of the war from behind enemy lines.
A blog post by Celine Plöger
A Historical Legacy of Resistance
Ukraine’s current underground resistance is deeply embedded in the country’s long-standing tradition of fighting foreign occupation. From the anti-Polish resistance in the 1920s to the Ukrainian Insurgent Army’s (UPA) fight against both Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, partisan warfare has long played a crucial role in Ukrainian national identity. Organisations like the Organisation of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN) and its military wing, the UPA, persisted in their struggle for independence well into the 1950s, especially in Western Ukraine. The memory of the UPA and OUN remains deeply embedded in Ukraine’s national remembrance, and continues to be invoked today as part of a lineage of uncompromising resistance. However, the Ukrainian independence fighters, epitomised by Stepan Bandera, remain deeply controversial, as they are simultaneously venerated as symbols of the struggle for self-determination and condemned for their involvement in political and ethnic violence driven by ultra-nationalist and fascist ideologies.
This historical memory has been revived in the current war. Many Ukrainians see themselves continuing the legacy of those who resisted Soviet and Nazi domination. The ongoing resistance movement is not purely military in nature, but also psychological and symbolic: a fight for national survival and the historical continuity of a Ukrainian nation-state.
Modes of Resistance: From Protests to Partisan Warfare
Since 2014, and especially following Russia’s full-scale invasion in 2022, Ukrainian citizens in occupied territories have formed underground networks to resist Russian control. Initially, resistance was shown through mass protests, such as those in Kherson, Nova Kakhovka, and Melitopol, but soon evolved into more covert forms due to brutal crackdowns by Russian forces. With rapid and brutal repression – kidnappings, torture and ‘pacification’ campaigns – tactics shifted toward silent disobedience, sabotage, and information warfare, such as boycotting referendums and refusing to cooperate with and work for occupying institutions.
Civilian-led initiatives like the Yellow Ribbon Movement emerged in early 2022 in Kherson, displaying Ukrainian symbols in occupied cities and organising anti-referendum campaigns. The Zla Mavka non-violent women’s movement in the city of Melitopol has also played an important role by psychologically resisting the occupiers through symbolic acts like spreading posters, leaflets and other materials across occupied regions. Meanwhile, movements such as Atesh (formed in September 2022, including Crimean Tatars) took up military sabotage, infiltrating Russian ranks, sabotaging logistics, and reporting enemy positions to Ukrainian forces. Partisan warfare remains one of the most potent tools of resistance by targeting rail lines, bridges, fuel depots, ammunition storage sites, command centres, and communication systems. Just recently, Atesh sabotaged a railway leading to an aerospace factory in the Russian city of Smolensk, disrupting rail lines supplying Moscow’s war efforts. These movements represent the two-pronged nature of Ukrainian resistance: one arm engaged in peaceful protest and civic defiance, the other in armed partisan activities and sabotage.
Coordinated Resistance Under Legal and Military Frameworks
Unlike the improvised resistance of 2014, also known as the Revolution of Dignity or Maidan Revolution, which was of a spontaneous and initially uncoordinated nature, today’s underground operations are coordinated through a well-established structure. The creation of the Special Operations Forces (SOF) in 2016 and the adoption of the 2021 Law “On the Foundations of National Resistance” laid the groundwork for legal and military coordination of partisan actions. The law came into effect on 1 January 2022 and defines national resistance as a component of comprehensive defence, mobilising the citizenry to defend sovereignty, deter aggression, and inflict heavy losses on the enemy. The law integrates resistance movements, territorial defence, and citizen training into a unified defence architecture.
The Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces exercises leadership of the resistance through the SOF, responsible for activities behind enemy lines. The National Resistance Center (NRC), established after the 2022 invasion, further supports the movement with practical guides, anonymous reporting tools, and coordination channels. These legal and institutional structures provide a framework for what was once a more ad hoc resistance effort.Despite the associated risks, including torture, kidnapping, and execution, countless civilians in occupied territories continue to resist. Russia’s aim to erase Ukrainian identity and assimilate occupied regions through ideology and sham referendums has only fuelled greater defiance. This resistance is driven by a clear message: Ukraine will continue resisting, even under occupation.
Conclusion: A Nation United Above and Below Ground
The underground resistance in Ukraine represents a vital, legally and militarily coordinated, and increasingly strategic dimension of the country’s defence against Russian occupation. Far from being a marginal or spontaneous reaction, these movements, both civil and armed, have become an integral component of Ukraine’s national resilience. Reinforced through legal and operational frameworks, Ukraine’s resistance demonstrates remarkable adaptability – shifting between protest, sabotage, and defying propaganda campaigns depending on conditions on the ground. Even under severe repression, occupied territories remain active sites of struggle, denying Russia uncontested control.
As such, international recognition of these movements under the laws of armed conflict is essential. Formal acknowledgement of their combatant status, alongside efforts to document abuses and prosecute war crimes, can strengthen their legitimacy and ensure protection under international humanitarian law. The EU’s political, legal, and material support, including its backing for tribunals, solidarity statements, and resource mobilisation, would further anchor the resistance within a broader international framework of accountability and solidarity. In essence, Ukraine’s underground resistance is more than a tactical tool; it is a national testament to the enduring will of the Ukrainian people for sovereignty and self-determination.
Celine Plöger has been a member of Polis since April 2025. She is a social and political scientist with regional expertise in Eastern Europe – particularly in the Western Balkans, the South Caucasus, and the wider European neighborhood.
The Polis Blog serves as a platform at the disposal of ‘Polis180’s & ‘OpenTTN‘s members. Published comments express solely the ‘authors’ opinions and shall not be confounded with the opinions of the editors or of Polis180.
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